JavaScript Basic Notes

TC39

JavaScript = ECMAScript + DOM + BOM:

ECMAScript: ECMA-262.
DOM: DOM Core + DOM HTML (document).
BOM: Browser Object Model API (HTML5) (window/navigator/location/screen/performance etc).

Primitive Values

Primitive data types:

Undefined.
Null.
Boolean.
Number.
String.
Symbol.
BigInt.

Undefined

对象属性未定义时, 该属性值为 undefined.
未初始化变量的初值为 undefined (表示等待被赋值).

Null

当引用为空或引用对象不存在时, 值为 null. null 值表示一个空对象指针.

Null

typeof null -> object.

Boolean

Zero Value Expression

零值表达式:

undefined.
null.
false.
NaN.
0
0n.
''.

Boolean Conversion

`x`	`Boolean(x)`
`undefined`	`false`
`null`	`false`
`boolean`	`x`
`number`	`0` → `false`, `NaN` → `false`
	Other numbers → `true`
`bigint`	`0n` → `false`
	Other numbers → `true`
`string`	`''` → `false`
	Other strings → `true`
`symbol`	`true`
`object`	`true`

Number

Binary: 0b10/0B10.
Octal: 0o23/0O23.
Hex: 0xFF.
** 指数运算符.
BigInt.

const a = 2172141653
const b = 15346349309
const c1 = a * b
// => 33334444555566670000

const c2 = BigInt(a) * BigInt(b)
// => 33334444555566667777n

const inhabitantsOfLondon = 1_335_000
const distanceEarthSunInKm = 149_600_000

const fileSystemPermission = 0b111_111_000
const bytes = 0b1111_10101011_11110000_00001101
const words = 0xF3B_F00D

const massOfElectronInKg = 9.109_383_56e-31
const trillionInShortScale = 1e1_2

Number Conversion

`x`	`Number(x)`
`undefined`	`NaN`
`null`	`0`
`boolean`	`false` → `0`, `true` → `1`
`number`	`x`
`bigint`	`-1n` → `-1`, `1n` → `1`
`string`	`''` → `0`
	Other → parsed number, ignoring leading/trailing whitespace
`symbol`	Throws TypeError
`object`	Configurable (`[Symbol.toPrimitive]()`/`valueOf()`)

assert.equal(Number(123.45), 123.45)
assert.equal(Number(''), 0)
assert.equal(Number('\n 123.45 \t'), 123.45)
assert.equal(Number('xyz'), Number.NaN)
assert.equal(Number(-123n), -123)
assert.equal(
  Number({
    valueOf() {
      return 123
    },
  }),
  123
)

Number Static Properties

Number.NaN.
Number.NEGATIVE_INFINITY.
Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY.
Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER.
Number.MIN_SAFE_INTEGER.
Number.EPSILON.
Number.isNaN().
Number.isFinite().
Number.isInteger().
Number.isSafeInteger().
Number.toExponential().
Number.toFixed().
Number.toPrecision().
Number.parseInt(string, radix).
Number.parseFloat(string).

;(1234).toExponential()
// '1.234e+3'
;(1234).toExponential(5)
// '1.23400e+3'
;(1234).toExponential(1)
// '1.2e+3'
;(0.003).toExponential()
// '3e-3'
;(0.00000012).toFixed(10)
// '0.0000001200'
;(0.00000012).toFixed()
// '0'
;(10 ** 21).toFixed()
// '1e+21'
;(1234).toPrecision(3)
// '1.23e+3'
;(1234).toPrecision(4)
// '1234'
;(1234).toPrecision(5)
// '1234.0'
;(1.234).toPrecision(3)
// '1.23'

Not A Number

const numberType = typeof Number.NaN // 'number'

Number.isFinite(Number.NaN)
// false
Number.isNaN(Number.NaN)
// true
Number.isNaN(123)
// false
Number.isNaN('abc')
// false

function isNumber(value) {
  return typeof value === 'number' && Number.isFinite(value)
}

NaN

NaN === NaN -> false.

Infinity Number

Infinity represents all values greater than 1.7976931348623157e+308. Infinity will be converted to null with JSON.stringify().

const largeNumber = 1.7976931348623157e308

// eslint-disable-next-line no-loss-of-precision -- Infinity
const largerNumber = 1.7976931348623157e309

console.log(largeNumber) // 1.7976931348623157e+308
console.log(largerNumber) // Infinity
console.log(46 / 0) // Infinity
console.log(Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY) // Infinity
console.log(Number.MAX_VALUE) // Infinity

// eslint-disable-next-line no-loss-of-precision -- -Infinity
console.log(-1.7976931348623157e309) // -Infinity
console.log(-46 / 0) // -Infinity
console.log(Number.NEGATIVE_INFINITY) // -Infinity
console.log(Number.MIN_VALUE) // -Infinity

console.log(Math.max()) // -Infinity
console.log(Math.min()) // Infinity

Number.isFinite(Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY)
// false
Number.isFinite(Number.NEGATIVE_INFINITY)
// false
Number.isFinite(Number.NaN)
// false
Number.isFinite(123)
// true

Safe Number

Safe integers:
- Precision: 53 bits plus sign.
- Range: (−2^53, 2^53).
Array indices:
- Precision: 32 bits, unsigned
- Range: [0, 2^32−1).
- Typed Arrays have a larger range of 53 bits (safe and unsigned).
Bitwise operators:
- Precision: 32 bits.
- Range of unsigned right shift (>>>): unsigned, [0, 2^32).
- Range of all other bitwise operators: signed, [−2^31, 2^31).

assert.equal(Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER, 2 ** 53 - 1)
assert.equal(Number.MIN_SAFE_INTEGER, -Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER)

assert.equal(Number.isSafeInteger(5), true)
assert.equal(Number.isSafeInteger('5'), false)
assert.equal(Number.isSafeInteger(5.1), false)
assert.equal(Number.isSafeInteger(Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER), true)
assert.equal(Number.isSafeInteger(Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER + 1), false)

Number.isInteger(-17)
// true
Number.isInteger(33)
// true
Number.isInteger(33.1)
// false
Number.isInteger('33')
// false
Number.isInteger(Number.NaN)
// false
Number.isInteger(Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY)
// false

Float Number

计算浮点数时, 应先计算整数, 再利用移位/乘法/除法转化为浮点数.
浮点值的精确度最高可达 17 位小数.

const a = (1 + 2) / 10 // a = 0.1 + 0.2;

String

String Primitive Features

作为基本变量:

delete 无法删除某位字符.

String Reference Features

赋值与传参: 传递 string 字符串常量的引用.
所有 string 字面量都是不可变量, 当对 string 进行操作后, 将先会在堆区创建副本, 再通过副本进行修改, 并返回副本的索引.
for...in: 返回下标数字.
for...of: 对字符串字符进行遍历.
没有被任何变量引用的 string: 垃圾回收.

const goodString = 'I\'ve been a good string'
console.log(typeof goodString) // string
console.log(goodString instanceof String) // false
console.log(Object.prototype.toString.call(goodString)) // [object String]

// eslint-disable-next-line no-new-wrappers, unicorn/new-for-builtins
const badString = new String('I\'ve been a naughty string')
console.log(typeof badString) // object
console.log(badString instanceof String) // true
console.log(Object.prototype.toString.call(badString)) // [object String]

const isPrimitiveString = value => typeof value === 'string'
console.log(isPrimitiveString(goodString)) // true
console.log(isPrimitiveString(badString)) // false

const isObjectWrappedString = value => value instanceof String
console.log(isObjectWrappedString(goodString)) // false
console.log(isObjectWrappedString(badString)) // true

const isString = value => typeof value === 'string' || value instanceof String
console.log(isString(goodString)) // true
console.log(isString(badString)) // true

function isStringAlternative(value) {
  return Object.prototype.toString.call(badString) === '[object String]'
}
console.log(isStringAlternative(goodString)) // true
console.log(isStringAlternative(badString)) // true

String Conversion

`x`	`String(x)`
`undefined`	`'undefined'`
`null`	`'null'`
`boolean`	`false` → `'false'`, `true` → `'true'`
`number`	`123` → `'123'`
`bigint`	`123n` → `'123'`
`string`	`x`
`symbol`	`Symbol('abc')` → `'Symbol(abc)'`
`object`	Configurable (`toPrimitive`/`toStringTag`/`toString()`)

String Unicode

// eslint-disable-next-line no-self-compare
const truthy = 'z' === 'z' // true
const truthy = '\x7A' === 'z' // true
const truthy = '\u007A' === 'z' // true
const truthy = '\u{7A}' === 'z' // true

String Char Code

string.charAt(index).
string.charCodeAt(index).
string.fromCharCode(charCode).
string.codePointAt(index): 正确处理 4 字节存储字符.
string.fromCodePoint(codePoint): 正确处理 4 字节存储字符.

function is32Bit(c) {
  return c.codePointAt(0) > 0xFFFF
}

const truthy = String.fromCodePoint(0x78, 0x1F680, 0x79) === 'x\uD83D\uDE80y'

const after = before.charAt(0).toUpperCase() + before.slice(1)

String Slice and Merge

string.slice().
string.substring().
string.substr().
string.split(separator): 选择割断符, 返回字符串数组.
Array<string>.join(separator): 将字符串数组连接成字符串.

const stringValue = 'hello world'
console.log(stringValue.slice(3)) // "lo world"
console.log(stringValue.substring(3)) // "lo world"
console.log(stringValue.substr(3)) // "lo world"
console.log(stringValue.slice(3, 8)) // "lo wo"
console.log(stringValue.substring(3, 8)) // "lo wo"
console.log(stringValue.substr(3, 8)) // "lo world"
console.log(stringValue.slice(-3)) // "rld"
console.log(stringValue.substring(-3)) // "hello world"
console.log(stringValue.substr(-3)) // "rld"
console.log(stringValue.slice(3, -4)) // "lo w"
console.log(stringValue.substring(3, -4)) // "hel"
console.log(stringValue.substr(3, -4)) // "" (empty string)

String Query

string.includes(substr).
string.startsWith(substr).
string.endsWith(substr).
使用第二个参数 n 时, endsWith 针对前 n 个字符, 其他两个方法针对从第 n 个位置直到字符串结束.

const s = 'Hello world!'

s.startsWith('world', 6) // true
s.endsWith('Hello', 5) // true
s.includes('Hello', 6) // false

// Arrays difference
;[
  [1, 2, 3, 4, 5],
  [5, 2, 10],
].reduce((a, b) => a.filter(c => !b.includes(c)))
// [1, 3, 4]

// Arrays intersection
;[
  [1, 2, 3],
  [101, 2, 1, 10],
  [2, 1],
].reduce((a, b) => a.filter(c => b.includes(c)))
// [1, 2]

string.match(RegExp): string[] | null.
string.matchAll(RegExp): string[] | null.

interface RegExpMatchArray extends Array<string> {
  index: number
  input: string
  groups: Record<string, string> | undefined
}

string.search(string | RegExp): number.

'a2b'.search(/\d/)
// 1
'a2b'.search('[0-9]')
// 1

String Replace

string.replace(string | RegExp, replaceValue | replacerFunction).
string.replaceAll(string | RegExp, replaceValue | replacerFunction).

// eslint-disable-next-line prefer-regex-literals
const regexp = new RegExp('foo[a-z]*', 'g')
const str = 'table football, foosball'
const matches = str.matchAll(regexp)

for (const match of matches) {
  console.log(
    `Found ${match[0]} start=${match.index} end=${
      match.index + match[0].length
    }.`
  )
}
// expected output: "Found football start=6 end=14."
// expected output: "Found foosball start=16 end=24."

// matches iterator is exhausted after the for..of iteration
// Call matchAll again to create a new iterator
Array.from(str.matchAll(regexp), m => m[0])
// Array [ "football", "foosball" ]

'aabbcc'.replaceAll('b', '.')
// => 'aa..cc'

'aabbcc'.replaceAll(/b/g, '.')
// => 'aa..cc'

String Pad

string.repeat(times).

'hello'.repeat(2) // "hellohello"
'na'.repeat(2.9) // "nana"

'na'.repeat(-0.9) // ""
'na'.repeat(-1) // RangeError

'na'.repeat(Number.NaN) // ""
'na'.repeat(Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY) // RangeError

'na'.repeat('na') // ""
'na'.repeat('3') // "nanana"

string.padStart(len, paddingStr).
string.padEnd(len, paddingStr).

'1'.padStart(10, '0') // "0000000001"
'12'.padStart(10, '0') // "0000000012"
'123456'.padStart(10, '0') // "0000123456"

'12'.padStart(10, 'YYYY-MM-DD') // "YYYY-MM-12"
'09-12'.padStart(10, 'YYYY-MM-DD') // "YYYY-09-12"

String Trim

string.trimLeft()/string.trimStart(): remove start whitespace.
string.trimRight()/string.trimEnd(): remove end whitespace.

String Template Literals

str 表示模板字符串:

// 普通字符串
;`In JavaScript '\n' is a line-feed.``\`Yo\` World!``In JavaScript this is // 多行字符串
 not legal.``${
  x // 引用变量
} + ${y * 2} = ${x + y * 2}``${obj.x + obj.y}``foo ${
  fn() // 调用函数
} bar`

Tagged Templates Literals

function boldify(parts, ...insertedParts) {
  return parts
    .map((s, i) => {
      if (i === insertedParts.length)
        return s
      return `${s}<strong>${insertedParts[i]}</strong>`
    })
    .join('')
}

const name = 'Sabertaz'
console.log(boldify`Hi, my name is ${name}!`)
// => "Hi, my name is <strong>Sabertaz</strong>!"

function template(strings, ...keys) {
  return function (...values) {
    const dict = values[values.length - 1] || {}
    const result = [strings[0]]
    keys.forEach((key, i) => {
      const value = Number.isInteger(key) ? values[key] : dict[key]
      result.push(value, strings[i + 1])
    })
    return result.join('')
  }
}

const t1Closure = template`${0}${1}${0}!`
t1Closure('Y', 'A') // "YAY!"
const t2Closure = template`${0} ${'foo'}!`
t2Closure('Hello', { foo: 'World' }) // "Hello World!"

编译模板 (小型模板引擎):

function compile(template) {
  const evalExpr = /<%=(.+?)%>/g
  const expr = /<%([\s\S]+?)%>/g

  template = template
    .replace(evalExpr, '`); \n  echo( $1 ); \n  echo(`')
    .replace(expr, '`); \n $1 \n  echo(`')

  template = `echo(\`${template}\`);`

  const script = `(function parse(data){
      let output = "";

      function echo(html){
        output += html;
      }

      ${template}

      return output;
    })`

  return script
}

const template = `
<ul>
  <% for(let i=0; i < data.supplies.length; i++) { %>
    <li><%= data.supplies[i] %></li>
  <% } %>
</ul>
`
const parse = compile(template)
div.innerHTML = parse({ supplies: ['broom', 'mop', 'cleaner'] })
// => <ul>
// =>   <li>broom</li>
// =>   <li>mop</li>
// =>   <li>cleaner</li>
// => </ul>

// 下面的hashTemplate函数
// 是一个自定义的模板处理函数
const libraryHtml = hashTemplate`
  <ul>
    #for book in ${myBooks}
      <li><i>#{book.title}</i> by #{book.author}</li>
    #end
  </ul>
`

国际化处理:

i18n`Welcome to ${siteName}, you are visitor number ${visitorNumber}!`
// "欢迎访问xxx, 您是第xxxx位访问者！"

XSS protection:

const message = SaferHTML`<p>${sender} has sent you a message.</p>`

function SaferHTML(templateString, ...expressions) {
  let s = templateString[0]

  for (let i = 0; i < expressions.length; i++) {
    const expression = String(expressions[i])

    // Escape special characters in the substitution.
    s += expression
      .replace(/&/g, '&amp;')
      .replace(/</g, '&lt;')
      .replace(/>/g, '&gt;')

    // Don't escape special characters in the template.
    s += templateString[i + 1]
  }

  return s
}

运行代码:

jsx`
  <div>
    <input
      ref='input'
      onChange='${this.handleChange}'
      defaultValue='${this.state.value}' />
      ${this.state.value}
   </div>
`

java`
class HelloWorldApp {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    System.out.println("Hello World!"); // Display the string.
  }
}
`
HelloWorldApp.main()

Raw String

console.log(`\u00A9`) // ©
console.log(String.raw`\u00A9`) // \u00A9

console.log(`first line\nsecond line`)
// first line
// second line
console.log(String.raw`first line\nsecond line`)
// "first line\nsecond line"

function printRaw(strings) {
  console.log('Actual characters:')

  for (const string of strings)
    console.log(string)

  console.log('Escaped characters;')

  for (const rawString of strings.raw)
    console.log(rawString)
}

printRaw`\u00A9${'and'}\n`
// Actual characters:
// ©
// (换行符)
// Escaped characters:
// \u00A9
// \n

String Utils

function ucWords(string) {
  return string.toLowerCase().replace(/\b[a-z]/g, l => l.toUpperCase())
}

function ucFirst(string) {
  return string[0].toUpperCase() + string.substr(1)
}

function studlyCase(string) {
  return string
    .replace('-', ' ')
    .replace('_', ' ')
    .split(' ')
    .map(str => str[0].toUpperCase() + str.substr(1).toLowerCase())
    .join('')
}

function snakeCase(string, glue = '_') {
  return string
    .replace(/\W+/g, ' ')
    .split(/ |\B(?=[A-Z])/)
    .map(word => word.toLowerCase())
    .join(glue)
}

function kebabCase(string) {
  return snakeCase(string, '-')
}

function objectToQueryString(obj) {
  return Object.keys(obj)
    .reduce((carry, key) => {
      if (obj[key] || obj[key] === 0)
        return `${carry}${key}=${obj[key]}&`

      return carry
    }, '')
    .replace(/&+$/, '')
}

Symbol

A Symbol is a unique and immutable primitive value and may be used as the key of an Object property.
Symbols don't auto-convert to strings and can't convert to numbers.
Symbol.for(key) create global Symbol registry.

// eslint-disable-next-line symbol-description
const genericSymbol = Symbol()
// eslint-disable-next-line symbol-description
const otherGenericSymbol = Symbol()
console.log(genericSymbol === otherGenericSymbol) // false

const fooSymbol = Symbol('foo')
const otherFooSymbol = Symbol('foo')
console.log(fooSymbol === otherFooSymbol) // false

const fooGlobalSymbol = Symbol.for('foobar') // 创建新符号
const otherFooGlobalSymbol = Symbol.for('foobar') // 重用已有符号
console.log(fooGlobalSymbol === otherFooGlobalSymbol) // true

Symbol Conversion

Convert To	Explicit Conversion	Coercion (Implicit Conversion)
`boolean`	`Boolean(sym)` → OK	`!sym` → OK
`number`	`Number(sym)` → TypeError	`sym * 2` → TypeError
`string`	`String(sym)` → OK	`'' + sym` → TypeError
	`sym.toString()` → OK	`${sym}` → TypeError
`object`	`Object(sym)` → OK	`Object.keys(sym)` → OK

Built-in Symbol Methods

Symbol methods:

[Symbol.iterator](): for of.
[Symbol.asyncIterator](): for await of.
[Symbol.match/replace/search/split](target): string.match/replace/search/split(classWithSymbolFunction).
[Symbol.hasInstance](instance): instance of.
[Symbol.species](): constructor for making derived objects.
[Symbol.toPrimitive](hint): 强制类型转换.
[Symbol.toStringTag](): string used by Object.prototype.toString().

iterator:

const arr = ['a', 'b', 'c']
const iter = arr[Symbol.iterator]()

iter.next() // { value: 'a', done: false }
iter.next() // { value: 'b', done: false }
iter.next() // { value: 'c', done: false }
iter.next() // { value: undefined, done: true }

hasInstance:

class Bar {}
class Baz extends Bar {
  static [Symbol.hasInstance](instance) {
    return false
  }
}

const b = new Baz()

console.log(Bar[Symbol.hasInstance](b)) // true
console.log(b instanceof Bar) // true
console.log(Baz[Symbol.hasInstance](b)) // false
console.log(b instanceof Baz) // false

const ReferenceType = {
  [Symbol.hasInstance](value) {
    return (
      value !== null
      && (typeof value === 'object' || typeof value === 'function')
    )
  },
}

const obj1 = {}
console.log(obj1 instanceof Object) // true
console.log(obj1 instanceof ReferenceType) // true

const obj2 = Object.create(null)
console.log(obj2 instanceof Object) // false
console.log(obj2 instanceof ReferenceType) // true

species:

class MyClass {
  static get [Symbol.species]() {
    return this
  }

  constructor(value) {
    this.value = value
  }

  clone() {
    return new this.constructor[Symbol.species](this.value)
  }
}

class MyDerivedClass1 extends MyClass {
  // empty
}

class MyDerivedClass2 extends MyClass {
  static get [Symbol.species]() {
    return MyClass
  }
}

const instance1 = new MyDerivedClass1('foo')
const instance2 = new MyDerivedClass2('bar')
const clone1 = instance1.clone()
const clone2 = instance2.clone()

console.log(clone1 instanceof MyClass) // true
console.log(clone1 instanceof MyDerivedClass1) // true
console.log(clone2 instanceof MyClass) // true
console.log(clone2 instanceof MyDerivedClass2) // false

toPrimitive:

class Temperature {
  constructor(degrees) {
    this.degrees = degrees
  }

  [Symbol.toPrimitive](hint) {
    switch (hint) {
      case 'string':
        return `${this.degrees}\u00B0` // degrees symbol
      case 'number':
        return this.degrees
      case 'default':
        return `${this.degrees} degrees`
    }
  }
}

const freezing = new Temperature(32)

console.log(`${freezing}!`) // "32 degrees!"
console.log(freezing / 2) // 16
console.log(String(freezing)) // "32째"

toStringTag:

class Person {
  constructor(name) {
    this.name = name
  }

  get [Symbol.toStringTag]() {
    return 'Person'
  }
}

const me = new Person('Me')

console.log(me.toString()) // "[object Person]"
console.log(Object.prototype.toString.call(me)) // "[object Person]"

Value	`toString` Tag
undefined	`Undefined`
null	`Null`
Array object	`Array`
string object	`String`
arguments	`Arguments`
callable	`Function`
error object	`Error`
boolean object	`Boolean`
number object	`Number`
date object	`Date`
regular expression object	`RegExp`
(Otherwise)	`Object`

Bigint

Decimal: 123n.
Binary: 0b1101n.
Octal: 0o777n.
Hexadecimal: 0xFFn.

/**
 * Takes a bigint as an argument and returns a bigint
 */
function nthPrime(nth) {
  if (typeof nth !== 'bigint')
    throw new TypeError('Not bigint')

  function isPrime(p) {
    for (let i = 2n; i < p; i++) {
      if (p % i === 0n)
        return false
    }

    return true
  }

  for (let i = 2n; ; i++) {
    if (isPrime(i)) {
      if (--nth === 0n)
        return i
    }
  }
}

assert.deepEqual(
  [1n, 2n, 3n, 4n, 5n].map(nth => nthPrime(nth)),
  [2n, 3n, 5n, 7n, 11n]
)

Bigint Conversion

`x`	`BigInt(x)`
`undefined`	Throws TypeError
`null`	Throws TypeError
`boolean`	`false` → `0n`, `true` → `1n`
`number`	`123` → `123n`
	Non-integer → throws RangeError
`bigint`	`x`
`string`	`'123'` → `123n`
	Unparsable → throws SyntaxError
`symbol`	Throws TypeError
`object`	Configurable (`[Symbol.toPrimitive]()`/`valueOf()`)

BigInt(undefined)
// TypeError: Cannot convert undefined to a BigInt
BigInt(null)
// TypeError: Cannot convert null to a BigInt
BigInt('abc')
// SyntaxError: Cannot convert abc to a BigInt
BigInt('123n')
// SyntaxError: Cannot convert 123n to a BigInt
BigInt('123')
// 123n
BigInt('0xFF')
// 255n
BigInt('0b1101')
// 13n
BigInt('0o777')
// 511n
BigInt(123.45)
// RangeError: The number 123.45 cannot be converted to a BigInt
BigInt(123)
// 123n
BigInt({
  valueOf() {
    return 123n
  },
})
// 123n

Convert To	Explicit Conversion	Coercion (Implicit Conversion)
`boolean`	`Boolean(0n)` → `false`	`!0n` → `true`
	`Boolean(int)` → `true`	`!int` → `false`
`number`	`Number(7n)` → `7`	`+int` → `TypeError`
`string`	`String(7n)` → `'7'`	`''+7n` → `'7'`

Bigint Static Properties

BigInt.asIntN(width, theInt): Casts theInt to width bits (signed).
BigInt.asUintN(width, theInt): Casts theInt to width bits (unsigned).

const uint64a = BigInt.asUintN(64, 12345n)
const uint64b = BigInt.asUintN(64, 67890n)
const result = BigInt.asUintN(64, uint64a * uint64b)

Wrapper Objects for Primitives

Using the wrapper function without the new keyword is a useful way of coercing a value into a primitive type.

// Not recommended (primitive object wrapper):
// eslint-disable-next-line no-new-wrappers, unicorn/new-for-builtins
const objectType = typeof new String(37) // object

// Safe (type coercion with wrapper function):
const stringType = typeof String(37) // string

// Primitive strings:
// eslint-disable-next-line no-self-compare
const truthy = '37' === '37' // true

// Object-wrapped string:
// eslint-disable-next-line no-new-wrappers, unicorn/new-for-builtins
const falsy = new String(37) === '37' // false

// Type-coerced string:
const truthy = String(37) === '37' // true

// BAD!
// eslint-disable-next-line no-new-wrappers, unicorn/new-for-builtins
const falseObject = new Boolean(false)
const result = falseObject && true
console.log(result) // true
console.log(typeof falseObject) // object
console.log(falseObject instanceof Boolean) // true

const prim = true
assert.equal(typeof prim, 'boolean')
assert.equal(prim instanceof Boolean, false)

// eslint-disable-next-line unicorn/new-for-builtins
const wrapped = Object(prim)
assert.equal(typeof wrapped, 'object')
assert.equal(wrapped instanceof Boolean, true)
assert.equal(wrapped.valueOf(), prim) // unwrap

Box and Unbox for primitive values:

自动创建的原始值包装对象可以让原始值拥有对象的行为.
自动创建的原始值包装对象只存在于访问它的那行代码执行期间.
常数值加括号可转化为对象.
可以对 primitive values 进行 ES6 解构语法.

const s1 = 'some text'
const s2 = s1.substring(2) // Call method on primitive string.
// let _s1 = new String(s1);
// const s2 = _s1.substring(2);
// _s1 = null;

const s3 = 'some text'
s3.color = 'red'
console.log(s3.color) // undefined

// primitive string
const greet = 'Hello there'
// primitive is converted to an object
// in order to use the split() method
const hello = greet.split(' ')[0] // "Hello"
// attempting to augment a primitive is not an error
greet.smile = true
// but it doesn't actually work
const undef = typeof greet.smile // "undefined"

不使用 new 关键字,包装类构造函数返回值为基本类型

const numberType = typeof Number(1) // "number"
const numberType = typeof Number('1') // "number"
// eslint-disable-next-line no-new-wrappers, unicorn/new-for-builtins
const numberType = typeof Number(new Number()) // "number"
const stringType = typeof String(1) // "string"
const booleanType = typeof Boolean(1) // "boolean"

Reference Values

Object e.g Date, RegExp.
Function.
Array.
Map.
Set.
WeakMap.
WeakSet.

Array

与 Object 同源.
关联数组: arrayName["string"] = value; 实际为 Array 对象添加属性{string:value}.
缓存数组长度:int l = list.length(访问length造成运算).
[]数组, {}对象.
数组在数值运算环境中转化为 0 (空数组)/ num (单一元素数组)/NaN (多元素数组/NaN 数组).

const array = [...Array.from({ length: 5 }).keys()] // => [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

Array Length

数组下标满足 [0, 2^32-1) 即可
运用大于 length 的下标, length 自动增大, 不会发生数组边界错误
length 等于数组最后一个整数属性名+1, length 不一定等于数组中有效元素个数

Array Literals

不使用构造函数,使用数组字面量创建数组

const arr1 = Array.from({ length: 3 }) // 数组长度
const arr2 = Array.from({ length: 3.14 }) // RangeError

if (typeof Array.isArray === 'undefined') {
  Array.isArray = function (arg) {
    // 其余对象返回值 [object Object/Number/String/Boolean]
    return Object.prototype.toString.call(arg) === '[object Array]'
  }
}

Array Of

Array.of(1) // [1]
Array.of(1, 2, 3) // [1, 2, 3]
Array.of(undefined) // [undefined]

Array From

强大的函数式方法:

伪数组对象 (Array-like object).
可枚举对象 (Iterable object).
浅克隆数组 (Shallow Clone).
map 函数.

interface ArrayLike<T> {
  length: number
  [n: number]: T
}

interface Array {
  from: (<T>(iterable: Iterable<T> | ArrayLike<T>) => T[]) & (<T, U>(
    iterable: Iterable<T> | ArrayLike<T>,
    mapFunc: (v: T, i: number) => U,
    thisArg?: any
  ) => U[])
}

// Set
// Map

// NodeList 对象
const ps = document.querySelectorAll('p')
Array.from(ps).forEach((p) => {
  console.log(p)
})

// arguments 对象
function foo() {
  // eslint-disable-next-line prefer-rest-params
  const args = Array.from(arguments)
  // ...
}

Array.from('hello')
// => ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']

const namesSet = new Set(['a', 'b'])
Array.from(namesSet) // ['a', 'b']

// 克隆数组
Array.from([1, 2, 3])
// => [1, 2, 3]

Array.from(arrayLike, x => x * x)
// =>
Array.from(arrayLike).map(x => x * x)

Array.from([1, 2, 3], x => x * x)
// [1, 4, 9]

// random array generation
Array.from(Array.from({ length: 5 }).keys())
// [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

// Typed array initialization
Array.from<T>({ length: maxSize }).fill(initValue)

Array Fill

const numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4]
numbers.fill(1, 2)
console.log(numbers.toString()) // 1, 2, 1, 1
numbers.fill(0, 1, 3)
console.log(numbers.toString()) // 1, 0, 0, 1
numbers.fill(1)
console.log(numbers.toString()) // 1, 1, 1, 1

Array CopyWithin

copyWithin(dest, start, end), 替换数组元素, 修改原数组:

;[1, 2, 3, 4, 5].copyWithin(0, 3)
// => [4, 5, 3, 4, 5]
;[1, 2, 3, 4, 5].copyWithin(0, -2, -1)
// -2相当于3号位, -1相当于4号位
// => [4, 2, 3, 4, 5]

// 将2号位到数组结束, 复制到0号位
const i32a = new Int32Array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
i32a.copyWithin(0, 2)
// => Int32Array [3, 4, 5, 4, 5]

Array Stack

arr.unshift(value) // 添加数组首元素
arr.push(value) // 添加数组尾元素
arr.shift() // 删除数组首元素
arr.pop() // 删除数组尾元素

Array Slice and Merge

slice 不改变原数组, splice 改变原数组.

;[].slice(start, end) // [start] - [end - 1]
;[].splice(startIndex, lengthToDelete, insertElements) // 功能强大的多态方法
;[].concat(otherArray)
;[].join(separator)

Array Query

;[].at(index) // ES2022
;[].includes(element) // boolean.
;[].find(callback) // element.
;[].findIndex(callback) // element index.
;[].indexOf(element) // -1 or other.
;[].lastIndexOf(element) // -1 or other.

// console.log([NaN].indexOf(NaN));
// -1

console.log([Number.NaN].includes(Number.NaN))
// true

Array Element Filter

相当于 Haskell 中的 List Filter:

const numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
const filterResult = numbers.filter((item, index, array) => item > 2)
console.log(filterResult) // 3,4,5,4,3

Array Boolean Filter

Array.every(filer).
Array.some(filer).

const numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
const everyResult = numbers.every((item, index, array) => item > 2)
const someResult = numbers.some((item, index, array) => item > 2)
console.log(everyResult) // false
console.log(someResult) // true

Array With

Array.prototype.with:

const arr = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
console.log(arr.with(2, 6)) // [1, 2, 6, 4, 5]
console.log(arr) // [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

const arr = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
console.log(arr.with(2, 6).map(x => x ** 2)) // [1, 4, 36, 16, 25]

const frameworks = ['Nuxt', 'Remix', 'SvelteKit', 'Ember']
console.log(frameworks.with(-1, 'React'))
// ✅ Returns a copy with the change: ['Nuxt', 'Remix', 'SvelteKit', 'React'].

Array Map

相当于 Haskell 中的 List Map:

;[].map(item => item + 1) // map over

Array Flat

[2, [2, 2]] => [2, 2, 2]

Array FlatMap

map + flat.

function flattenDeep(arr) {
  return Array.isArray(arr)
    ? arr.reduce((a, b) => a.concat(flattenDeep(b)), [])
    : [arr]
}

flattenDeep([1, [[2], [3, [4]], 5]])
// => [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

// ES2019
;[1, [2, [3, [4]], 5]].flat(Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY)
// => [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

function flattenDeep(arr) {
  return arr.flatMap((subArray, index) =>
    Array.isArray(subArray) ? flattenDeep(subArray) : subArray
  )
}

flattenDeep([1, [[2], [3, [4]], 5]])
// => [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

Array Reduce

reduce/reduceRight:

Accumulator: initial value, otherwise array[0].
Current value: array[0], otherwise array[1].
Implement array sets manipulation (reduce/filter/includes).
Implement XXXBy functional methods.

;[].reduce(
  (previous, current, currentIndex, arr) => current + previous,
  initial
) // fold function

Implement groupBy:

const groupByLength = ['one', 'two', 'three'].reduce(
  (acc, current, _index, _array) => {
    const key = current.length
    ;(acc[key] || (acc[key] = [])).push(current)
    return acc
  },
  {}
)
// {3: ["one", "two"], 5: ["three"]}

const groupByFunction = [1.3, 2.1, 2.4].reduce(
  (acc, current, _index, _array) => {
    const key = Math.floor(current)
    ;(acc[key] || (acc[key] = [])).push(current)
    return acc
  },
  {}
)
// {1: [1.3], 2: [2.1, 2.4]}

Array Traversal

array.forEach((val) => {}) // 遍历数组所有元素.

Array Sort

toExchange:

return 1: a, b 交换位置.
return -1: a, b 不交换位置.

arr.sort(toExchange)
strings.sort((a, b) => a.localeCompare(b))
strings.sort((a, b) => new Intl.Collator('en').compare(a, b))

Array Reverse

;[].reverse()

// Tips
// 反转字符串
const reverseStr = normalizedStr.split('').reverse().join('')

Array Spread

Shallow Clone.
Iterable Consumer.

arr2.push(...arr1)

const obj = { x: 1, y: 2, z: 3 }

obj[Symbol.iterator] = function* () {
  yield 1
  yield 2
  yield 3
}

const array = [...obj] // print [1, 2, 3]

Array Deep Clone

const nestedArray = [1, [2], 3]
const arrayCopy = JSON.parse(JSON.stringify(nestedArray))

// Make some changes
arrayCopy[0] = '1' // change shallow element
arrayCopy[1][0] = '3' // change nested element
console.log(arrayCopy) // [ '1', [ '3' ], 3 ]

// Good: Nested array NOT affected
console.log(nestedArray) //  1, [ 2 ], 3 ]

Typed Array

Typed Array 是 ArrayBuffer (用于 Web GL 高效率内存操作) 其中一种视图:

File.
XMLHttpRequest.
Fetch.
Web Worker.
WebSocket.
Canvas.
WebGL.
Web Audio.

// 第一个参数是应该返回的数组类型
// 其余参数是应该拼接在一起的定型数组
function typedArrayConcat(TypedArrayConstructor, ...typedArrays) {
  // 计算所有数组中包含的元素总数
  const numElements = typedArrays.reduce((x, y) => (x.length || x) + y.length)
  // 按照提供的类型创建一个数组, 为所有元素留出空间
  const resultArray = new TypedArrayConstructor(numElements)
  // 依次转移数组
  let currentOffset = 0
  typedArrays.forEach((x) => {
    resultArray.set(x, currentOffset)
    currentOffset += x.length
  })
  return resultArray
}

const concatArray = typedArrayConcat(
  Int32Array,
  Int8Array.of(1, 2, 3),
  Int16Array.of(4, 5, 6),
  Float32Array.of(7, 8, 9)
)

console.log(concatArray) // [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
console.log(concatArray instanceof Int32Array) // true

const view = new Int16Array([25, 50])
console.log(view instanceof Int16Array) // true
// eslint-disable-next-line unicorn/no-instanceof-array
console.log(view instanceof Array) // false
console.log(Array.isArray(view)) // false

Map

size.
has().
get().
set().
delete().
clear().
keys().
values().
entries().

const map = new Map([
  // You define a map via an array of 2-element arrays. The first
  // element of each nested array is the key, and the 2nd is the value
  ['name', 'Jean-Luc Picard'],
  ['age', 59],
  ['rank', 'Captain'],
])

// To get the value associated with a given `key` in a map, you
// need to call `map.get(key)`. Using `map.key` will **not** work.
map.get('name') // 'Jean-Luc Picard'

const map = new Map([])

// eslint-disable-next-line no-new-wrappers, unicorn/new-for-builtins
const n1 = new Number(5)
// eslint-disable-next-line no-new-wrappers, unicorn/new-for-builtins
const n2 = new Number(5)

map.set(n1, 'One')
map.set(n2, 'Two')

// `n1` and `n2` are objects, so `n1 !== n2`. That means the map has
// separate keys for `n1` and `n2`.
map.get(n1) // 'One'
map.get(n2) // 'Two'
map.get(5) // undefined

// If you were to do this with an object, `n2` would overwrite `n1`
const obj = {}
obj[n1] = 'One'
obj[n2] = 'Two'

const two1 = obj[n1] // 'Two'
const two2 = obj[5] // 'Two'

const objectClone = new Map(Object.entries(object))
const arrayClone = new Map(Array.from(map.entries))
const map = new Map([
  ['name', 'Jean-Luc Picard'],
  ['age', 59],
  ['rank', 'Captain'],
])

// The `for/of` loop can loop through iterators
for (const key of map.keys())
  console.log(key) // 'name', 'age', 'rank'

for (const value of map.values())
  console.log(value) // 'Jean-Luc Picard', 59, 'Captain'

for (const [key, value] of map.entries()) {
  console.log(key) // 'name', 'age', 'rank'
  console.log(value) // 'Jean-Luc Picard', 59, 'Captain'
}

Set

size.
has().
add().
delete().
clear().
keys().
values().
entries().

class XSet extends Set {
  union(...sets) {
    return XSet.union(this, ...sets)
  }

  intersection(...sets) {
    return XSet.intersection(this, ...sets)
  }

  difference(set) {
    return XSet.difference(this, set)
  }

  symmetricDifference(set) {
    return XSet.symmetricDifference(this, set)
  }

  cartesianProduct(set) {
    return XSet.cartesianProduct(this, set)
  }

  powerSet() {
    return XSet.powerSet(this)
  }

  // 返回两个或更多集合的并集
  // new Set([...setA, ...setB]);
  static union(a, ...bSets) {
    const unionSet = new XSet(a)

    for (const b of bSets) {
      for (const bValue of b)
        unionSet.add(bValue)
    }

    return unionSet
  }

  // 返回两个或更多集合的交集
  // new Set([...setA].filter(x => setB.has(x)))
  static intersection(a, ...bSets) {
    const intersectionSet = new XSet(a)

    for (const aValue of intersectionSet) {
      for (const b of bSets) {
        if (!b.has(aValue))
          intersectionSet.delete(aValue)
      }
    }

    return intersectionSet
  }

  // 返回两个集合的差集
  // new Set([...setA].filter(x => !setB.has(x)))
  static difference(a, b) {
    const differenceSet = new XSet(a)

    for (const bValue of b) {
      if (a.has(bValue))
        differenceSet.delete(bValue)
    }

    return differenceSet
  }

  // 返回两个集合的对称差集
  static symmetricDifference(a, b) {
    // 按照定义, 对称差集可以表达为:
    return a.union(b).difference(a.intersection(b))
  }

  // 返回两个集合 (数组对形式) 的笛卡儿积
  // 必须返回数组集合, 因为笛卡儿积可能包含相同值的对
  static cartesianProduct(a, b) {
    const cartesianProductSet = new XSet()

    for (const aValue of a) {
      for (const bValue of b)
        cartesianProductSet.add([aValue, bValue])
    }

    return cartesianProductSet
  }

  // 返回一个集合的幂集
  static powerSet(a) {
    const powerSet = new XSet().add(new XSet())

    for (const aValue of a) {
      for (const set of new XSet(powerSet))
        powerSet.add(new XSet(set).add(aValue))
    }

    return powerSet
  }
}

WeakMap and WeakSet

WeakMap 结构与 Map 结构基本类似, 唯一的区别就是 WeakMap 只接受非 null 对象作为键名:

弱键: 键名构建的引用无法阻止对象执行垃圾回收.
不可迭代键: 键/值随时可能被垃圾回收, 无需提供迭代能力, 无 clear() 方法.

它的键所对应的对象可能会在将来消失. 一个对应 DOM 元素的 WeakMap 结构, 当某个 DOM 元素被清除, 其所对应的 WeakMap 记录就会自动被移除.

有时候我们会把对象作为一个对象的键用来存放属性值, 普通集合类型比如简单对象 (Object/Map/Set) 会阻止垃圾回收器对这些作为属性键存在的对象的回收, 有造成内存泄漏的危险, WeakMap/WeakSet 则更加内存安全:

Caching computed results.
Managing listeners.
Keeping private data.

Date

const now = new Date()
now.getFullYear() // 1-n
now.getMonth() // Warn: 0-11
now.getDate() // 1-n
now.getDay() // Warn: 0-6
now.getHours()
now.getSeconds()
now.toString()
now.toDateString()
now.toTimeString()
now.toUTCString()
now.toLocaleString()
now.toLocaleDateString()
now.toLocaleTimeString()

function daysOfMonth(year, month) {
  // `0` for last month of next month
  return new Date(year, month + 1, 0).getDate()
}

function prevYear(year) {
  return new Date(year - 1, 0).getFullYear()
}

function nextYear(year) {
  return new Date(year + 1, 0).getFullYear()
}

function prevMonth(year, month) {
  return new Date(year, month - 1).getMonth()
}

function nextMonth(year, month) {
  return new Date(year, month + 1).getMonth()
}

function getDateItemList(year, month) {
  const days = daysOfMonth(year, month)
  const currentDateItemList = [...Array.from({ length: days }).keys()].map((index) => {
    return DateItem(year, month, 1 + index)
  })

  const firstDayItem = DateItem(year, month, 1)
  const firstDayWeekday = firstDayItem.day
  const lastMonthDays = daysOfMonth(year, month - 1)
  const prefixDays = firstDayWeekday === 0 ? 7 : firstDayWeekday
  const prefixFirstDay = lastMonthDays - prefixDays + 1
  const prefixYear = prevYear(year)
  const prefixMonth = prevMonth(year, month)
  const prefixDateItemList = [...Array.from({ length: prefixDays }).keys()].map((index) => {
    return DateItem(prefixYear, prefixMonth, prefixFirstDay + index)
  })

  const lastDayItem = DateItem(year, month, days)
  const lastDayWeekday = lastDayItem.day
  const suffixDays = lastDayWeekday === 6 ? 7 : 6 - lastDayWeekday
  const suffixYear = nextYear(year)
  const suffixMonth = nextMonth(year, month)
  const suffixDateItemList = [...Array.from({ length: suffixDays }).keys()].map((index) => {
    return DateItem(suffixYear, suffixMonth, 1 + index)
  })

  const dateItemList = [
    ...prefixDateItemList,
    ...currentDateItemList,
    ...suffixDateItemList,
  ]

  return dateItemList
}

Temporal

Temporal Basis

Temporal.ZonedDateTime.from({
  year,
  month,
  day,
  timeZone: Temporal.Now.timeZone(),
})

Temporal.ZonedDateTime.from({
  year,
  month,
  day,
  hour,
  minute,
  timeZone: Temporal.Now.timeZone(),
})

const second = Temporal.Now.zonedDateTimeISO().second
const hour = Temporal.Now.zonedDateTimeISO().hour
const day = Temporal.Now.zonedDateTimeISO().day

Temporal.Now.zonedDateTimeISO().with({ second: 30 })
Temporal.Now.zonedDateTimeISO().with({ hour: 13 })
Temporal.Now.zonedDateTimeISO().with({ day: 1 })
Temporal.Now.zonedDateTimeISO().withPlainTime(
  new Temporal.PlainTime(23, 59, 59, 999, 999, 999)
)

Temporal Range

const dayOfWeek = Temporal.Now.zonedDateTimeISO().dayOfWeek
const dayOfYear = Temporal.Now.zonedDateTimeISO().dayOfYear
const daysInMonth = new Temporal.PlainYearMonth(2012, 2).daysInMonth
const daysInMonth = Temporal.PlainYearMonth.from('2012-02').daysInMonth
const weekOfYear = Temporal.Now.zonedDateTimeISO().weekOfYear
const weekOfYear = Temporal.PlainDate.from({
  day: 31,
  month: 12,
  year: Temporal.Now.plainDateISO(),
}).weekOfYear
const inLeapYear = Temporal.PlainDate.from('2000-01-01').inLeapYear

Temporal.Now.zonedDateTimeISO().add(Temporal.Duration.from({ days: 7 }))
Temporal.Now.zonedDateTimeISO().subtract(Temporal.Duration.from({ days: 14 }))
Temporal.Now.zonedDateTimeISO()
  .with({ month: 1, day: 1 })
  .add(Temporal.Duration.from({ days: 256 }))
Temporal.Now.zonedDateTimeISO()
  .with({ month: 1, day: 1 })
  .add(Temporal.Duration.from({ weeks: 23 }))

Temporal.Instant.fromEpochMilliseconds(Math.max.apply(null, dateArrays))
Temporal.Instant.fromEpochMilliseconds(Math.min.apply(null, dateArrays))

Temporal Display

new Intl.DateTimeFormat('en-GB', {
  dateStyle: 'full',
  timeStyle: 'medium',
}).format(Temporal.Now.zonedDateTimeISO())
new Intl.DateTimeFormat('de-DE', { weekday: 'short', hour: 'numeric' }).format(
  Temporal.Now.zonedDateTimeISO()
)

Temporal.PlainDate.from('2007-01-27').until('2007-01-29')
Temporal.PlainDate.from('2007-01-27')
  .since('2007-01-29')
  .total({ unit: 'millisecond' })
Temporal.PlainDate.from('2007-01-27').since('2007-01-29').total({ unit: 'day' })

Temporal Query

const isBefore = Temporal.PlainDate.compare('2010-10-20', '2010-10-21') === -1
const isAfter = Temporal.PlainDate.compare('2010-10-20', '2010-10-19') === 1
const isEqual = Temporal.PlainDate.from('2010-10-20').equals('2010-10-21')
const isEqual = Temporal.PlainDate.from('2010-10-20').equals('2010-10-20')
const isEqual
  = Temporal.PlainDate.from('2010-10-20').month
  === Temporal.PlainDate.from('2010-10-21').month

const isPlainTime = Temporal.Now.plainTimeISO() instanceof Temporal.PlainTime
const isPlainDate = Temporal.Now.plainDateISO() instanceof Temporal.PlainDate
const isPlainDateTime
  = Temporal.Now.plainDateTimeISO() instanceof Temporal.PlainDateTime
const isZonedDateTime
  = Temporal.Now.zonedDateTimeISO() instanceof Temporal.ZonedDateTime

Variable

Variable Hoisting

一方面规定, var/function 声明的全局变量, 依旧是全局对象的属性, 意味着会Hoisting.
另一方面规定, let/const/class 声明的全局变量, 不属于全局对象的属性, 意味着不会Hoisting.
var 只有函数作用域, let/const 拥有块级作用域.
var 表达式和 function 声明都将会被提升到当前作用域 (全局作用域/函数作用域) 顶部, 其余表达式顺序不变.

	Hoisting	Scope	Creates Global Properties
`var`	Declaration	Function	Yes
`let`	Temporal dead zone	Block	No
`const`	Temporal dead zone	Block	No
`class`	Temporal dead zone	Block	No
`function`	Complete	Block	Yes
`import`	Complete	Module-global	No

// 我们知道这个行不通 (假设没有未定义的全局变量)
function example() {
  console.log(notDefined) // => throws a ReferenceError
}

// 在引用变量后创建变量声明将会因变量提升而起作用.
// 注意: 真正的值 `true` 不会被提升.
function example() {
  console.log(declaredButNotAssigned) // => undefined
  var declaredButNotAssigned = true
}

// 解释器将变量提升到函数的顶部
// 这意味着我们可以将上边的例子重写为:
function example() {
  let declaredButNotAssigned
  console.log(declaredButNotAssigned) // => undefined
  declaredButNotAssigned = true
}

// 使用 const 和 let
function example() {
  console.log(declaredButNotAssigned) // => throws a ReferenceError
  console.log(typeof declaredButNotAssigned) // => throws a ReferenceError
  const declaredButNotAssigned = true
}

function example() {
  console.log(named) // => undefined

  named() // => TypeError named is not a function

  superPower() // => ReferenceError superPower is not defined

  var named = function superPower() {
    console.log('Flying')
  }
}

Let Variable

块级作用域内定义的变量/函数, 在块级作用域外 ReferenceError.
不存在变量提升, 导致暂时性死区 (Temporal Dead Zone).
let variable in for-loop closure, every closure for each loop binds the block-scoped variable.

const a = 1

b = 3 // temporal dead zone: throw reference error

let b = 2

let 变量拥有块级作用域 (每个 setTimeout 引用的都是不同的变量实例):

// for (var i = 0; i < 5; ++i) {
//   setTimeout(() => console.log(i), 0);
// }
// Output 5, 5, 5, 5, 5.
// 所有的 i 都是同一个变量, 输出同一个最终值.

for (let i = 0; i < 5; ++i)
  setTimeout(() => console.log(i), 0)

// Output: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
// JavaScript 引擎会为每个迭代循环声明一个新的迭代变量.
// 每个 setTimeout 引用的都是不同的变量实例.

Const Variable

const 一旦声明变量, 就必须立即初始化, 不能留到以后赋值.
引用一个Reference变量时, 只表示此变量地址不可变, 但所引用变量的值/属性可变 (xxx *const, 即const指针, 指向一个变量).
块级作用域.
不存在变量提升, 导致暂时性死区 (Temporal Dead Zone).

const f = () => g()
const g = () => 123

// We call f() after g() was declared:
assert.equal(f(), 123)

funcDecl()

const MY_STR = 'abc'
function funcDecl() {
  assert.throws(() => MY_STR, ReferenceError)
}

Type Detection

function typeOf(o) {
  const _toString = Object.prototype.toString
  const _type = {
    'undefined': 'undefined',
    'number': 'number',
    'boolean': 'boolean',
    'string': 'string',
    '[object Function]': 'function',
    '[object GeneratorFunction]': 'function',
    '[object Array]': 'array',
    '[object Date]': 'date',
    '[object RegExp]': 'regexp',
    '[object Error]': 'error',
    '[object JSON]': 'json',
  }

  return _type[typeof o] || _type[_toString.call(o)] || (o ? 'object' : 'null')
}

function type(item) {
  const reTypeOf = /^\[object\s(.*?)\]$/

  return Object.prototype.toString
    .call(item)
    .replace(reTypeOf, '$1')
    .toLowerCase()
}

Null Detection

不应使用 typeof 检测 null, 应使用 ===/!==.

/*
 * ECMAScript 标准的重大 bug
 */
const objectType = typeof null // => object

Property Detection

由于属性值可能为零值值表达式, 不应使用零值表达式(0/NaN/''/null/undefined) 检测属性值.
应使用 for in 进行属性检测.

Custom Object Detection

object instanceof Constructor: 在原型链上查找构造器的原型对象 (Constructor.prototype).
prop in object: 查找原型链属性名.

/**
 * L 表示左表达式, R 表示右表达式: L 为变量, R 为类型.
 */
function instanceOf(L, R) {
  const prototype = R.prototype
  let chain = L[[proto]]

  while (true) {
    if (chain === null)
      return false

    if (prototype === chain)
      return true

    chain = chain[[proto]]
  }
}

Type Conversion

Type Conversion Context

字符串 -> 整数: +string/Number(string)/parseInt(string, arg1).
any -> bool: !!any.
const -> object: (const).
parseInt(str, base):
- 遇到非数字字符立即停止运行, 返回当前转化值.
- 将 0 开头字符串解析为八进制数, 0x 开头字符串解析为十六进制数.
boolean在数值运算环境中 true => 1, false => 0.
数组在数值运算环境中转化为 0 (空数组)/num (单一元素数组)/NaN (多元素数组/NaN 数组).
对象在逻辑运算环境中转化为 true , 包括 false 的封装对象.
对象在数值运算环境中先利用 valueOf(object), 再利用 toString() 转化为数字, 若转化失败, 则返回 NaN.
对象与数值加号运算: 先数值加, (失败后)再字符串加.

// good
const totalScore = String(this.reviewScore)

// good
const val = Number(inputValue)

// good
const val = Number.parseInt(inputValue, 10)

// good
const hasAge = Boolean(age)

// best
const hasAge = !!age

Type Conversion Algorithms

function ToString(argument) {
  if (argument === undefined) {
    return 'undefined'
  } else if (argument === null) {
    return 'null'
  } else if (argument === true) {
    return 'true'
  } else if (argument === false) {
    return 'false'
  } else if (TypeOf(argument) === 'number') {
    return Number.toString(argument)
  } else if (TypeOf(argument) === 'string') {
    return argument
  } else if (TypeOf(argument) === 'symbol') {
    return Symbol.toString(argument)
  } else if (TypeOf(argument) === 'bigint') {
    return BigInt.toString(argument)
  } else {
    // argument is an object
    const primValue = ToPrimitive(argument, 'string')
    return ToString(primValue)
  }
}

function ToPropertyKey(argument) {
  const key = ToPrimitive(argument, 'string') // (A)

  if (TypeOf(key) === 'symbol')
    return key

  return ToString(key)
}

function ToNumeric(value) {
  const primValue = ToPrimitive(value, 'number')

  if (TypeOf(primValue) === 'bigint')
    return primValue

  return ToNumber(primValue)
}

function ToNumber(argument) {
  if (argument === undefined) {
    return Number.NaN
  } else if (argument === null) {
    return +0
  } else if (argument === true) {
    return 1
  } else if (argument === false) {
    return +0
  } else if (TypeOf(argument) === 'number') {
    return argument
  } else if (TypeOf(argument) === 'string') {
    return parseTheString(argument) // not shown here
  } else if (TypeOf(argument) === 'symbol') {
    throw new TypeError('Failed!')
  } else if (TypeOf(argument) === 'bigint') {
    throw new TypeError('Failed!')
  } else {
    // argument is an object
    const primValue = ToPrimitive(argument, 'number')
    return ToNumber(primValue)
  }
}

ToPrimitive:

[Symbol.toPrimitive]().
toString().
valueOf().

/**
 * @param input input string
 * @param hint Which type is preferred for the result string, number etc.
 */
function ToPrimitive(
  input: any,
  hint: 'string' | 'number' | 'default' = 'default'
) {
  if (TypeOf(input) === 'object') {
    const exoticToPrim = input[Symbol.toPrimitive] // (A)

    if (exoticToPrim !== undefined) {
      const result = exoticToPrim.call(input, hint)

      if (TypeOf(result) !== 'object')
        return result

      throw new TypeError('[Symbol.toPrimitive]() failed!')
    }

    if (hint === 'default')
      hint = 'number'

    return OrdinaryToPrimitive(input, hint)
  } else {
    // input is already primitive
    return input
  }
}

function OrdinaryToPrimitive(O: object, hint: 'string' | 'number') {
  const methodNames
    = hint === 'string' ? ['toString', 'valueOf'] : ['valueOf', 'toString']

  for (const name of methodNames) {
    const method = O[name]

    if (IsCallable(method)) {
      const result = method.call(O)

      if (TypeOf(result) !== 'object')
        return result
    }
  }

  throw new TypeError('Conversion failed!')
}

Operators

Loose Comparison

== 与 != loose comparison:

Type conversion first, then comparison.
Return comparison between ToNumber(x) and ToPrimitive(y).

/** Loose equality (==) */
function abstractEqualityComparison(x, y) {
  if (TypeOf(x) === TypeOf(y)) {
    // Use strict equality (===)
    return strictEqualityComparison(x, y)
  }

  // Comparing null with undefined
  if (x === null && y === undefined)
    return true

  if (x === undefined && y === null)
    return true

  // Comparing a number and a string
  if (TypeOf(x) === 'number' && TypeOf(y) === 'string')
    return abstractEqualityComparison(x, Number(y))

  if (TypeOf(x) === 'string' && TypeOf(y) === 'number')
    return abstractEqualityComparison(Number(x), y)

  // Comparing a bigint and a string
  if (TypeOf(x) === 'bigint' && TypeOf(y) === 'string') {
    const n = StringToBigInt(y)

    if (Number.isNaN(n))
      return false

    return abstractEqualityComparison(x, n)
  }
  if (TypeOf(x) === 'string' && TypeOf(y) === 'bigint')
    return abstractEqualityComparison(y, x)

  // Comparing a boolean with a non-boolean
  if (TypeOf(x) === 'boolean')
    return abstractEqualityComparison(Number(x), y)

  if (TypeOf(y) === 'boolean')
    return abstractEqualityComparison(x, Number(y))

  // Comparing an object with a primitive
  // (other than undefined, null, a boolean)
  if (
    ['string', 'number', 'bigint', 'symbol'].includes(TypeOf(x))
    && TypeOf(y) === 'object'
  ) {
    return abstractEqualityComparison(x, ToPrimitive(y))
  }

  if (
    TypeOf(x) === 'object'
    && ['string', 'number', 'bigint', 'symbol'].includes(TypeOf(y))
  ) {
    return abstractEqualityComparison(ToPrimitive(x), y)
  }

  // Comparing a bigint with a number
  if (
    (TypeOf(x) === 'bigint' && TypeOf(y) === 'number')
    || (TypeOf(x) === 'number' && TypeOf(y) === 'bigint')
  ) {
    if (
      [Number.NaN, +Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY, Number.NEGATIVE_INFINITY].includes(x)
      || [Number.NaN, +Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY, Number.NEGATIVE_INFINITY].includes(y)
    ) {
      return false
    }

    if (isSameMathematicalValue(x, y))
      return true
    else
      return false
  }

  return false
}

Strict Comparison

=== 与 !==:

Strings: same length, same characters in corresponding positions.
Numbers: numerically equal.
Objects: refer to same Object.
Positive and negative 0 are equal to one another.
NaN is not equal to anything, including NaN.
null and undefined types are not equal with ===, but equal with ==.

const true1 = 0 == false // true
const false1 = 0 === false // false
const true2 = 1 == '1' // true
const false2 = 1 === '1' // false
const true3 = undefined == null // true
const false3 = undefined === null // false
const true4 = '0' == false // true
const false4 = '0' === false // false
// eslint-disable-next-line no-self-compare
const false5 = [] == [] // false, refer different objects in memory
// eslint-disable-next-line no-self-compare
const false6 = [] === [] // false, refer different objects in memory
// eslint-disable-next-line no-self-compare
const false7 = {} == {} // false, refer different objects in memory
// eslint-disable-next-line no-self-compare
const false8 = {} === {} // false, refer different objects in memory

Object.is:

// Case 1: Evaluation result is the same as using ===
Object.is(25, 25) // true
Object.is('foo', 'foo') // true
Object.is('foo', 'bar') // false
Object.is(null, null) // true
Object.is(undefined, undefined) // true
Object.is(window, window) // true
Object.is([], []) // false
const foo = { a: 1 }
const bar = { a: 1 }
Object.is(foo, foo) // true
Object.is(foo, bar) // false: different reference pointers.

// Case 2: Signed zero
Object.is(0, -0) // false
Object.is(+0, -0) // false
Object.is(-0, -0) // true
Object.is(0n, -0n) // true

// Case 3: NaN
Object.is(Number.NaN, 0 / 0) // true
Object.is(Number.NaN, Number.NaN) // true

if (!Object.is) {
  Object.defineProperty(Object, 'is', {
    value: (x, y) => {
      // SameValue algorithm
      if (x === y) {
        // return true if x and y are not 0, OR
        // if x and y are both 0 of the same sign.
        // This checks for cases 1 and 2 above.
        return x !== 0 || 1 / x === 1 / y
      } else {
        // return true if both x AND y evaluate to NaN.
        // The only possibility for a variable to not be strictly equal to itself
        // is when that variable evaluates to NaN (example: Number.NaN, 0/0, NaN).
        // This checks for case 3.
        // eslint-disable-next-line no-self-compare
        return x !== x && y !== y
      }
    },
  })
}

Conditional Expression

养成使用分号结束句子的习惯, 需分行显示的语句必须确保单行不会形成完整语义:

const i = a ? 1 : b ? 2 : c ? 3 : 4

Add Operator

a + b:

如果有一个是对象, 则遵循对象对原始值的转换过程:
- Date 对象直接调用 toString 完成转换.
- 其他对象通过 valueOf 转化, 如果转换不成功则调用 toString.
如果两个都是对象, 两个对象都遵循步骤 1 转换到字符串.
两个数字, 进行算数运算.
两个字符串, 直接拼接.
一个字符串一个数字, 直接拼接为字符串.

Dot Operator

. 优先级高于 =: el.data 优先求值, 引用 old, 指向 old.data. 5 => el, 5 => el.data (old.data).

let el = { data: 1 }
const old = el

el.data = el = 5
console.log(el) // 5
console.log(el.data) // undefined
console.log(old) // { data: 5 }
console.log(old.data) // 5

Logical Operator

Optional Chaining Operator ?.: Legible property chains that don't throw an error if a requested reference is missing.
Nullish coalescing operator ??: Binary operator. If the value of left side expression is null or undefined, right side of the operator is evaluated.
Logical assignment operators: &&=, ||=, ??=.

Assignment Operator	Equivalent To	Only Assigns When `a`
`a \|\|= b`	`a \|\| (a = b)`	Falsy
`a &&= b`	`a && (a = b)`	Truthy
`a ??= b`	`a ?? (a = b)`	Nullish

Delete Operator

delete operator returns a boolean value:

true on a successful deletion.
false on a failed deletion: var/let/const variables cannot be deleted using delete operator.

const name = 'Lydia'
age = 21

// eslint-disable-next-line no-delete-var
console.log(delete name) // false
// eslint-disable-next-line no-delete-var
console.log(delete age) // true

Operator Reference

Operator Lookup

Destructuring Pattern Matching

建议只要有可能, 就不要在模式中放置圆括号.
赋值语句的非模式部分, 可以使用圆括号.
Every time access value via .: stop and think whether use destructuring instead.
Destructure as early as possible.
Remember to include default values, especially in nested destructuring.

Destructuring Default Value

ES6 内部使用严格相等运算符 (===), 判断一个位置是否有值. 若此位置无值, 则使用默认值.
如果一个数组成员不严格等于 undefined, 默认值不会生效.

const [x = 1] = [undefined]
console.log(x) // 1

const [x = 1] = [null]
console.log(x) // null

let [x = 1, y = x] = [] // x=1; y=1
let [x = 1, y = x] = [2] // x=2; y=2
let [x = 1, y = x] = [1, 2] // x=1; y=2
let [x = y, y = 1] = [] // ReferenceError

Object Destructuring

解构赋值的规则: 只要等号右边的值不是对象, 就先将其转为对象.
undefined/null 无法转化为对象:

const { prop: x } = undefined // TypeError
const { prop: y } = null // TypeError

const { bar, foo } = { foo: 'aaa', bar: 'bbb' }
console.log(foo) // "aaa"
console.log(bar) // "bbb"

const { baz } = { foo: 'aaa', bar: 'bbb' }
console.log(baz) // undefined

真正被赋值的是后者, 而不是前者:

const { foo: baz } = { foo: 'aaa', bar: 'bbb' }
console.log(baz) // "aaa"

const { first: f, last: l } = { first: 'hello', last: 'world' }
console.log(f) // 'hello'
console.log(l) // 'world'

Left-hand side of a normal assignment:

const obj = {}
;[first, ...obj.prop] = ['a', 'b', 'c']
// first = 'a'; obj.prop = ['b', 'c']

const arr = []
;({ bar: arr[0] } = { bar: true })
console.log(arr) // [true]

JSON Object Destructuring

const jsonData = {
  id: 42,
  status: 'OK',
  data: [867, 5309],
}

const { id, status, data: number } = jsonData

console.log(id, status, number)
// 42, "OK", [867, 5309]

Import Destructuring

const { SourceMapConsumer, SourceNode } = require('source-map')

Number and Boolean Destructuring

number/boolean 会自动构造原始值包装对象:

let { toString: s } = 123
const truthy = s === Number.prototype.toString // true

let { toString: s } = true
const truthy = s === Boolean.prototype.toString // true

Iterator Destructuring

等号右边必须为数组等实现了 Iterator 接口的对象, 否则报错:

Array.
Set.
Generator function.

const [foo, [[bar], baz]] = [1, [[2], 3]]
console.log(foo) // 1
console.log(bar) // 2
console.log(baz) // 3

const [, , third] = ['foo', 'bar', 'baz']
console.log(third) // "baz"

const [x, , y] = [1, 2, 3]
console.log(x) // 1
console.log(y) // 3

const [head, ...tail] = [1, 2, 3, 4]
console.log(head) // 1
console.log(tail) // [2, 3, 4]

const [x, y, ...z] = ['a']
console.log(x) // "a"
console.log(y) // undefined
console.log(z) // []

// Generator 函数
function* fibs() {
  let a = 0
  let b = 1

  while (true) {
    yield a
    ;[a, b] = [b, a + b]
  }
}

const [first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth] = fibs()
console.log(sixth) // 5

Left-hand side of a normal assignment:

let x = 1
let y = 2
;[x, y] = [y, x]

Map and List Destructuring

for index in Iterable<T>: key.
for [key, value] of Iterable<T>: entry.

const map = new Map()
map.set('first', 'hello')
map.set('second', 'world')

for (const [key, value] of map)
  console.log(`${key} is ${value}`)

// first is hello
// second is world

// 获取键名
for (const [key] of map) {
  // ...
}

// 获取键值
for (const [, value] of map) {
  // ...
}

String Destructuring

const [a, b, c, d, e] = 'hello'
console.log(a) // "h"
console.log(b) // "e"
console.log(c) // "l"
console.log(d) // "l"
console.log(e) // "o"

const { length: len } = 'hello'
console.log(len) // 5

Function Parameters Destructuring

可用于工厂 (factory) / 设置 (options) 模式传参一般为 options 对象,
具有固定的属性名.
一次性定义多个参数.
一次性定义多个参数的默认值.

// 参数是一组有次序的值
function f1([x, y, z]) {}
f1([1, 2, 3])

// 参数是一组无次序的值
function f2({ x, y, z }) {}
f2({ z: 3, y: 2, x: 1 })

// 可省略 const foo = config.foo || 'default foo';
jQuery.ajax = function (
  url,
  {
    async = true,
    beforeSend = function () {},
    cache = true,
    complete = function () {},
    crossDomain = false,
    global = true,
    // ... more config
  }
) {
  // ... do stuff
}

Function Return Value Destructuring

返回多个值:

// 返回一个数组
function example1() {
  return [1, 2, 3]
}

const [a, b, c] = example1()

// 返回一个对象
function example2() {
  return {
    foo: 1,
    bar: 2,
  }
}

const { foo, bar } = example2()

Control Flow

Switch Case Statement

用 Strategy Pattern 代替 switch/case 语句:

function doAction(action) {
  const actions = {
    hack() {
      return 'hack'
    },

    slash() {
      return 'slash'
    },

    run() {
      return 'run'
    },
  }

  if (typeof actions[action] !== 'function')
    throw new TypeError('Invalid action.')

  // 闭包方法集
  return actions[action]()
}

Object

OOP Features

共用方法, 单独属性, 封装细节:

原型代理 (享元模式): 利用享元模式共享公有属性与通用方法.
实例状态 (原型克隆): 利用原型克隆拥有各自属性值.
封装性 (闭包式继承): 利用闭包方法实现属性私有化.

Prototype Chain

原型链

实例化对象仅有属性__proto__, 没有属性prototype, 函数才具有属性 prototype (指向引擎为其自动创建的原型对象): Instance.__proto__ === Constructor.prototype.
所有引用类型 (包括对象/数组/函数/构造函数) 都有属性__proto__(隐式原型).
所有函数/构造函数的 __proto__ 都指向 Function.prototype.
除Object.prototype.__proto__指向 null 外, 其余函数/构造函数的原型对象的__proto__ 都指向 Object.prototype.
除Object.create()外, 所新建对象的 __proto__ 指向构造该对象的构造函数的原型对象(prototype).
除typeof Function.prototype 为 'function' 外, 其余函数/构造函数的原型对象都为 '对象'(typeof 为 'object').
先有Object.prototype(原型链顶端), Function.prototype 继承Object.prototype而产生, 最后Object/Function/Array/其它构造函数继承Function.prototype而产生.

// True because of `Object` is `function Object()` and inherited from `Function.prototype`
// Object has its own `prototype` property refer to `Object.prototype`
const truthy = Object[[proto]] === Function.prototype

// True because of `Array` is `function Array()` and inherited from `Function.prototype`
// Array has its own `prototype` property refer to `Array.prototype`
const truthy = Array[[proto]] === Function.prototype

// True because of Function is `function Function()` and inherited from `Function.prototype`
// Function has its own `prototype` property refer to `Function.prototype`
const truthy = Function[[proto]] === Function.prototype

// True because of Object.prototype is the top of inheritance chains (null is Object.prototype.__proto__)
// all `object/function/array instance`.__proto__......__proto__ refer to Object.prototype
const truthy = Function[[proto]][[proto]] === Object.prototype

// True:
const truthy = Object instanceof Function
const truthy = Function instanceof Object

Prototype Chain

Object.__proto__ -> Function.prototype.
Function.prototype.__proto__ -> Object.prototype.
Object.prototype.__proto__ -> null.

__proto__:

[[proto]] getter is Object.getPrototypeOf(object).
[[proto]] setter is Object.setPrototypeOf(object, prototype).

function Foo(value) {
  this.val = value
}

// Auto create FooPrototype
// Foo.prototype -> FooPrototype
// FooPrototype.constructor -> [function Foo]
// foo.__proto__ -> FooPrototype
const foo = new Foo(2)

function Person() {}
const person1 = new Person()
const person2 = new Person()

console.log(person1 !== Person) // true
console.log(person1 !== Person.prototype) // true
console.log(Person.prototype !== Person) // true

// eslint-disable-next-line no-proto, no-restricted-properties
console.log(person1.__proto__ === Person.prototype)

TC39​

Primitive Values​

Undefined​

Null​

Boolean​

Zero Value Expression​

Boolean Conversion​

Number​

Number Conversion​

Number Static Properties​

Not A Number​

Infinity Number​

Safe Number​

Float Number​

String​

String Primitive Features​

String Reference Features​

String Conversion​

String Unicode​

String Char Code​

String Slice and Merge​

String Query​

String Replace​

String Pad​

String Trim​

String Template Literals​

Tagged Templates Literals​

Raw String​

String Utils​

Symbol​

Symbol Conversion​

Built-in Symbol Methods​

Bigint​

Bigint Conversion​

Bigint Static Properties​

Wrapper Objects for Primitives​

Reference Values​

Array​

Array Length​

Array Literals​

Array Of​

Array From​

Array Fill​

Array CopyWithin​

Array Stack​

Array Slice and Merge​

Array Query​

Array Element Filter​

Array Boolean Filter​

Array With​

Array Map​

Array Flat​

Array FlatMap​

Array Reduce​

Array Traversal​

Array Sort​

Array Reverse​

Array Spread​

Array Deep Clone​

Typed Array​

Map​

Set​

WeakMap and WeakSet​

Date​

Temporal​

Temporal Basis​

Temporal Range​

Temporal Display​

Temporal Query​

Variable​

Variable Hoisting​

Let Variable​

Const Variable​

Type Detection​

Null Detection​

Property Detection​

Custom Object Detection​

Type Conversion​

Type Conversion Context​

Type Conversion Algorithms​

TC39

Primitive Values

Undefined

Null

Boolean

Zero Value Expression

Boolean Conversion

Number

Number Conversion

Number Static Properties

Not A Number

Infinity Number

Safe Number

Float Number

String

String Primitive Features

String Reference Features

String Conversion

String Unicode

String Char Code

String Slice and Merge

String Query

String Replace

String Pad

String Trim

String Template Literals

Tagged Templates Literals

Raw String

String Utils

Symbol

Symbol Conversion

Built-in Symbol Methods

Bigint

Bigint Conversion

Bigint Static Properties

Wrapper Objects for Primitives

Reference Values

Array

Array Length

Array Literals

Array Of

Array From

Array Fill

Array CopyWithin

Array Stack

Array Slice and Merge

Array Query

Array Element Filter

Array Boolean Filter

Array With

Array Map

Array Flat

Array FlatMap

Array Reduce

Array Traversal

Array Sort

Array Reverse

Array Spread

Array Deep Clone

Typed Array

Map

Set

WeakMap and WeakSet

Date

Temporal

Temporal Basis

Temporal Range

Temporal Display

Temporal Query

Variable

Variable Hoisting

Let Variable

Const Variable

Type Detection

Null Detection

Property Detection

Custom Object Detection

Type Conversion

Type Conversion Context

Type Conversion Algorithms